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Главный редактор: И.С. Прохоров, к.с.-х.н.
Редакция: И.И. Прохорова (директор), М.В. Царева, к.с.-х.н., С.Г. Царева
Редколлегия: Л.С. Бакуменко, к.э.н., С.Л. Белопухов, д.с.-х.н., к.х.н., Н.М. Белоус, д.с.-х.н., И.И. Дмитревская, д.с.-х.н., Л.А. Дорожкина, д.с.-х.н., А.А. Завалин, д.с.-х.н., С.Ю. Зайцев, д.б.н., д.х.н., А.Л. Иванов, д.б.н., Л.В. Кирейчева, д.т.н., И.А. Коленченко, к.э.н., А.В. Кураков, д.б.н., А.В. Леднев, д.с.-х.н., С.В. Лукин, д.с.-х.н., С.М. Лукин, д.б.н., А.А. Лукманов, д.с.-х.н., М.Г. Мустафаев, д.с.-х.н. (Азербайджан), С.М. Надежкин, д.б.н., М.М. Овчаренко, д.с.-х.н., к.х.н., А.В. Пасынков, д.б.н., Т.Ф. Персикова, д.с.-х.н. (Беларусь), А.А. Плотников, к.с.-х.н., О.А. Подколзин, д.с.-х.н., Т.Р. Рыспеков (Казахстан), к.с.-х.н., Н.И. Санжарова, д.б.н., В.М. Семенов, д.б.н., В.И. Титова, д.с.-х.н., П.А. Чекмарев, д.с.-х.н., О.Х. Эргашева, к.б.н. (Узбекистан)
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2025 / Issue 2
FERTILIZER AND HARVEST
Influence of mineral fertilizers and biopreparations on formation of leaf area, photosynthesis productivity and yield of spelt
DOI 10.24412/1029-2551-2025-2-001
This paper presents the results of the influence of calculated norms of mineral fertilizers and biologics used in the pre-sowing preparation of seeds on the formation of the leaf area of spelt (two-grain) according to the phases of its development, the net productivity of photosynthesis and grain yield. It was found that the leaf area of the studied crop increases on average over 4 years under the influence of the interaction of two factors from 9.8 in the control (without biologics and without fertilizers) to 15.7 thousand m2 /ha in the latest version of the experiment in the tillering phase (an increase of 1.6 times), in the earing phase – from 24.8 to 29.3 thousand m2/ha (an increase of 18.1%) and in the phase of waxy ripeness of grain from 6.2 to 8.3 thousand m2/ha. In the analyzed variants of the experiment, the net productivity of photosynthesis (accumulation of organic matter) increases from 69 to 93 kg/ha per day, which provided additional production of 1.19-1.23 t/ha of grain.
Keywords: spelt, mineral fertilizers, biological products, leaf area, net photosynthesis productivity, accumulation of organic matter, grain yield.
Efficiency of microbiological fertilizers Azotovit and Phosphatovit for potato cultivation in the Udmurt republic
DOI 10.24412/1029-2551-2025-2-002
The results of studies in 2019-2020 and 2022-2023 on the effectiveness of microbiological fertilizers Azotovit and Fosfatovit in the cultivation of potatoes on soddy-medium-podzolic light loamy soil typical for the Vyatka-Kama agricultural province of the Udmurt Republic are presented. The soil of the experimental plots was characterized by a reaction close to neutral, high and very high supply of mobile phosphorus and increased supply of mobile potassium. Microbiological fertilizers were used for pre-sowing treatment of tubers and irrigation (root feeding) of plants during the budding phase. The control group received treatment and irrigation with water. The potato variety was Red Scarlet. The hydrothermal coefficient of the growing seasons (HTC) was: in 2019 – 1.18; 2020 – 0.72; 2022 – 0.69 and 2023 – 0.40. The experiment was considered as a three-factor one, where factor A was HTC; factor B – biological fertilizers; factor C – method of fertilizer use. A significant correlation was established between yield and the HTC indicator: depending on the decrease in HTC, the yield decreased on average by 9.8-27.7 t/ha. The effectiveness of microbiological fertilizers significantly depended on the HTC. The greatest increase in yield was obtained from the use of Azotovit – on average 5.8 t/ha. The impact of Fosfatovit on yield was significantly inferior to Azotovit – the increase compared to the control was 4.9 t/ha with a significance level of 0.05 for the main effects by factor B = 0.9 t/ha. The combined use of microbiological fertilizers led to a significant decrease in the yield increase, which can be explained by the mutual negative influence of microorganisms Beijerinckia fluminensis and Paenibacillus mucilaginosus. Irrigation of plants with microbiological fertilizers in addition to pre-sowing treatment of tubers contributed to a significant increase in yield - on average 5.2 t/ha. A positive influence of the specified experimental factors on the content of dry matter and starch in tubers, as well as gross starch yield, was revealed.
Keywords: potato, microbiological fertilizers, hydrothermal coefficient, yield, quality, sod-medium-podzolic light loamy soil.
Application of silicon fertilizer in technology of cultivation of two harvests of potato crops
DOI 10.24412/1029-2551-2025-2-003
The article presents the results of development of technological methods for cultivation of two harvests of potato crops in the Moscow region using silicon fertilizer Apasil to reduce plant stress and hydrogel in constantly changing climate conditions. It was found that the use of silicon fertilizer together with hydrogel and separately contributes to an increase in the yield of two potato crops of the Zhukovsky ranniy variety by 34 and 25% and the Red Scarlet variety by 51 and 35%, respectively, during the first planting, the Varyag variety by 39 and 31% and the Nevsky variety 40 and 28%, respectively, during the second planting.
Keywords: potato, variety, silicon fertilizer, hydrogel, yield, two plantings.
Impact of complex slow-release fertilizers and foliar treatment with lignohumate on ag- rochemical properties of soil and yield of black currant
DOI 10.24412/1029-2551-2025-2-004
Based on a two-year small-plot experiment, the effect of foliar treatment of black currant with preparation Lignohumate AM in combination with mineral and complex fertilizers of prolonged action (Osmocote, Ruscote) on the agrochemical properties of the soil, as well as on the morphometric parameters of plants, macro- and microelement (Cu, Zn, Pb, Cd) composition of currant leaves was studied. The use of complex prolonged-release fertilizers in combination with foliar treatment with Lignohumate AM promotes shoot growth (36.0 cm when using Osmocote and Lignohumate AM), an increase in leaf area (57.1 cm2 when using Ruscote and Lignohumate AM), berry weight (402.5 g/m2 when using Ruscote and Lignohumate AM) and the number of brushes (97.0 pcs when using Ruscote and Lignohumate AM). The greatest effect was achieved when using granulated mineral fertilizers in combination with foliar treatment with Lignohumate AM, which led to a significant increase in yield (542.5 g/m2), leaf area (55.7 cm2) and the number of brushes (130.3 pcs). At the same time, the efficiency of Osmocote and Ruscote fertilizers decreased in the second year of the experiment: shoot growth was 13.0 cm (Osmocote) and 18.0 cm (Ruscote). It was determined that foliar treatment of plants with an aqueous solution of Lignohumate at a concentration of 0.05% improves plant nutrition, helps optimize plant nutrition with macro- and microelements (nitrogen content in leaves is 2.2% in the variant with foliar treatment in 2022 compared to 1.7% in the control).
Keywords: slow-release fertilizers (Osmocote, Ruscote), Lignohumate, black currant, morphometric indicators, foliar treatment, microelements.
Efficiency of fertilizer application for winter wheat in steppe zone of the Rostov region
DOI 10.24412/1029-2551-2025-2-005
Based on the results of research in a long-term field experiment in 1990-2022 on ordinary chernozem to study crop rotations, tillage methods and levels of fertilizer application for winter wheat, optimal doses of fertilizers were determined to maximize yield. The best precursors have been identified, allowing for maximum yield at minimal cost. Optimal values of the amount of precipitation and the average daily temperature of the growing season of winter wheat have been established, allowing yields of up to 5 t/ha. The effectiveness of fertilizers is determined depending on the precursor and the dose of fertilizer application. It was found that the payback of fertilizers was obtained with the ap- plication of average doses of fertilizers (N46P30K30) according to the predecessor, winter wheat was 9.82-10.08 kg of grain per kilogram of fertilizers applied, and according to the predecessor, pure steam was 5.76-6.54 kg/kg.
Keywords: winter wheat, fertilizers, predecessor, fertilizer payback, processing method soils.
SOIL PROPERTIES
Changes in agrochemical properties of soils under conditions of zinc pollution
DOI 10.24412/1029-2551-2025-2-006
The article presents the results of a model experiment to study the effect of different doses of zinc on pH, the content of mineral nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium), organic matter, and the structure of the microbial community of typical chernozems. The data obtained indicate that high concentrations of the metal cause changes in the agrochemical properties of the soil, inhibit the processes of producing important enzymes of the oxidoreductase and hydrolase classes, which is confirmed by changes in the structure of the soil microbiome, namely, a decrease in the number of bacteria such as Actinobacteria and Proteobacteria.
Keywords: chernozem, zinc, enzymatic activity, humus, microbial community.
Evaluation of priming and disinfecting activities of silver nanoparticles in relation to wheat seeds
DOI 10.24412/1029-2551-2025-2-007
The results of optimizing the conditions for priming wheat seeds with silver nanoparticles stabilized with carboxymethylcellulose (AgNP-CMC) are presented, as well as an evaluation of the disinfection properties of nanoparticles under these conditions. According to transmission electron microscopy data, the AgNP-CMC had a shape close to spherical; the hydrodynamic radius and -potential determined by the dynamic light scattering method were 4.5 ± 0.4 nm and 45.7 ± 2.9 mV, respectively. Using a three-factor three-level Box-Benken design, the greatest effect of priming was found can be achieved at AgNP-CMC concentration of 50 mg/l and soaking seeds in a suspension of nanoparticles for 14 hours at a temperature of 16°C. Common winter wheat seeds primed under these conditions had improved growth characteristics under optimal germination conditions and under conditions of water deficiency in laboratory conditions; in the field, the best overwintering of seedlings from treated seeds was shown. Using scanning electron microscopy, it was found that AgNP-CMC does not penetrate the seeds, but are deposited locally on their surface. An assessment of the disinfecting properties showed that AgNP-CMC are characterized by the properties of a contact bactericidal disinfectant, which is effective in treating seeds by wet treatment followed by drying. The conclusion is made about the prospects for further research of the AgNP-CMC in the conditions of long-term field experiments.
Keywords: winter wheat, nanoparticles, seed treatment, carboxymethylcellulose, optimization of seed treatment, electron microscopy.
PLANT PROTECTION
Degradation of active substances of insecticides in protection of rapeseed
DOI 10.24412/1029-2551-2025-2-008
The article presents the results of a study of the degradation dynamics of the active substances chlorpyrifos and bifenthrin when using preparations based on them to protect rapeseed from pests. Field experiments and selection of plant material were carried out over two (2021 and 2022) seasons in the Leningrad Region. As a result, information was obtained on the degradation of the preparation with a combination of active substances in the composition of 500 g/l chlorpyrifos and 25 g/l bifenthrin. Residual amounts of chlorpyrifos after treatments recommended by standards at levels below the MDL (maximum permissible level) were already indicated on the 10th day, while for bifenthrin, indicators corresponding to safe ones were recorded significantly (already on the 3rd day) earlier. Not even trace amounts of these active substances were found in the crop and the oil obtained from it. The results of monitoring and subsequent analysis of the degradation dynamics of the studied substances allowed us to determine their half-life coefficients when used as part of a combined preparation on rapeseed crops. The average characteristics for chlorpyrifos correspond to 1.24 days, while for bifenthrin this indicator covers a period almost twice as long (2.17 days). Against this background, a clear dependence of bifenthrin degradation on weather conditions was revealed. Thus, the presence of heavy precipitation contributed to a reduction in the decomposition period of bifenthrin by 90% to two times. At the same time, this factor did not affect the degradation dynamics of chlorpyrifos.
Keywords: insecticides, rapeseed crops, active substances, residual quantities of preparations, degradation, half-life coefficient, gas chromatography.
Finding ways to improve efficiency of biopreparations in conditions of field potato treatments
DOI 10.24412/1029-2551-2025-2-009
The article presents the results of 2-year trials of the effectiveness of several biological preparations that were used in the field on potatoes. In 2023, biofungicides against alternariosis (Alternaria solani): Trichocin, WP. and Alirin B. Li., in 2024, against late blight (Phytophthora infestans) Vitaplan, WP. Experimental treatments were carried out with a working fluid consumption of 10 l/ha and 300 l/ha. The high temperatures of the summer of 2023 and 2024, as shown by experimental treatments, had a negative effect on the biological effectiveness of all drugs, regardless of which drug it is, fungal or bacterial. At the same time, studies were conducted in experiments to determine the possibility of using 1% of the composition: anti-vaporizer + adhesive (glycerin + sorbitol), as additives in the working fluid to biological products. It was found that the addition of this composition to biological products, by reducing the evaporation of droplets and better retaining them on the treated surface, reduces the effect of adverse weather on microorganisms, creating conditions for their reproduction. As a result, for 2 years, in these variants, the yield was higher for all experimental preparations compared not only with the control, but also with the variants without the composition of the vaporizer and adhesive. This suggests that the addition of 1% of the composition (glycerin + sorbitol) to the working fluid to biopreparations increases the protective action time of biofungicides against diseases on potato plants, especially under extreme weather conditions.
Keywords: biopreparation, field treatments, biological efficiency, weather conditions, anti-evaporator and the adhesive.
Role of rhizosphere enterobacteria in plant adaptation to pesticide stress
DOI 10.24412/1029-2551-2025-2-010
The article presents the results of the primary screening of rhizosphere enterobacteria strains for resistance to pesticides and an assessment of the role of rhizosphere enterobacteria in plant adaptation to pesticide stress in laboratory conditions. White mustard seeds were used as a plant test object. It was found that 6 out of 32 studied strains were resistant to fungicidal and insecticidal pesticides. When mustard seeds were treated jointly with pesticide solutions and bacterial suspensions, 3 strains were identified that contributed to an increase in germination by 10-35%. The strains had a more specific effect on the morphometric parameters of seedlings, depending on the parameter and the pesticide used. All this indicates the need for further research on the options for the combined use of enterobacteria and pesticides and their positive and/or negative effects on plant development, both in laboratory and field conditions.
Keywords: enterobacteria, pesticides, seeds, plant development.
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCHES
Influence of duration of solid-phase microbiological fermentation on mycotoxin dynamics
DOI 10.24412/1029-2551-2025-2-011
To improve the physicochemical properties of agricultural and food industry waste with the prospect of using them for animal feed, biofermentation technology is increasingly used using microorganisms collected in starters, which include Lesnov's starter. Most of the initial substrates contain mycotoxins and mycotoxin-forming micromycetes, which can produce mycotoxins under favorable temperature and humidity fermentation conditions. Based on this, we studied the effect of different duration of biofermentation (12, 24, 36, 48 h.) on the quantitative content of T-2 toxin, aflatoxin B1, ochratoxin A. The studies found that after 12 hours of microbiological fermentation, the amount of T2 toxin decreased by 6.8 times compared to the initial level, with further fermentation up to and including 48 hours, there is no accumulation of T-2 toxin above the MAC; with different duration of fermentation, sharp changes in the concentration of aflatoxin B1 in relation to the initial amount are observed, however, all fluctuations were within the MAC; during fermentation, an increase in the concentration of ochratoxin A was observed and after 24, 36 and 48 hours its level exceeded the MAC by 3.4; 6.8 and 5.0 times, respectively. For those using solid-phase microbiological fermentation technology, the following recommendations are given based on the obtained results: preliminary study of substrates for qualitative and quantitative content of T2 toxin, aflatoxin B1 and ochratoxin A; to reduce the concentration of T-2 toxin and aflatoxin B1 in substrates, 12-, 24- and 36-hour biofermentation mode with final control of the mycotoxin level can be used; if the initial substrate contains ochratoxin A, the microbiological fermentation technology cannot be used.
Keywords: feed, T-2 toxin, aflatoxin B1, ochratoxin A, duration of microbiological fermentation, Lesnov's starter.
Methods for studying the antioxidant activity in biological fluids
DOI 10.24412/1029-2551-2025-2-012
The presence of antioxidants in biological fluids contributes to the preservation of its taste properties and technological qualities, prevents its spoilage for a longer time, which is important at all stages of production and storage. Timely receipt of key data on the antioxidant activity (AOA) of in biological fluids (e.g. milk) is very important, therefore, it causes interest in methods for assessing AOA. However, in the current State Standards and technical conditions for cow's milk there are no methods for determining the AOA of milk. The general principles for determining the integral AOA are based on «red-ox reactions» and can be implemented by red-ox titration, various biochemical and physico-chemical methods: spectral, electrochemical, coulometric, voltammetric, potentiometric, amperometric and others. Unfortunately, the classification of methods for determining the AOA of milk differs significantly in various sources. Based on a review of the main methods for determining the AOА in biological fluids the most simple and informative is the measurement of the total amount of water-soluble antioxidants (TAWSA) of milk. It is proposed to recommend the definition of TAWSA in biological fluids for inclusion in both current and new technical conditions and recommendations for assessing the quality of the corresponding food products.
Keywords: antioxidant activity, analysis methods, red-ox reactions, total amount of water-soluble antioxidants.
YOUNG SCIENTISTS RESEARCH
Estimation of enzymatic soil activity in different crop rotation links
DOI 10.24412/1029-2551-2025-2-013
The influence of the predecessor taking into account the aftereffect of annually applied mineral fertilizers under the main tillage of the soil under crop rotation crops with subsequent analysis of the enzymatic activity and measurement of the phytotoxicity of the gray forest soil using test cultures of various biological series was studied. It was found that in the links of the crop rotation «barley – pea-oat mixture» the application of fertilizers at a dose of N60P60K60 leads to the regulation of the value of soil fertility of gray forest soils of long-term experience, which is reflected in the indices of enzymatic activity, so the best parameters of the agrochemical state of gray forest soils in the studied agrocenoses fall on the link of the crop rotation «barley – pea-oat mixture», at which the application of a dose of fertilizers at a dose of N60P60K60 increases the indices of soil fertility. The level of the ecological state is satisfactory. Within the studied agrocenoses, it was established that the agrogenic load on gray forest soils leads to a decrease in productivity and enzymatic activity, but the use of fertilizers in a dose of N60P60K60 and compliance with the principles of crop rotation makes it possible to rationally maintain an optimal level of microbiological activity. With a qualitative assessment of soils by phytotoxicity indicators, there is a decrease in productivity by 25-50%, which is associated with an excessive amount of mineral elements in the soil and depends on the biological properties of cultivated crops.
Keywords: soil, crop rotation, gray forest soil, fertilizer, crop rotation crops, fertility.
Main directions of improving of soil monitoring measures and it’s application in modern conditions
DOI 10.24412/1029-2551-2025-2-014
The state accounting of indicators of fertility of agricultural lands is one of the components of the state monitoring of lands, the order of which is established by the land legislation of the Russian Federation. The article reveals peculiarities and efficiency of application of modern technologies of agrochemical and ecological-toxicological examination of soils at certain stages of monitoring. It has been established that the improvement of soil survey methodology and preparation of final results, allowing to assess changes in soil fertility in time, is possible with the use of specialized computer programs for automation of preparatory and cameral stages, as well as through the use of GPS-navigators and automatic samplers during the field stage. It was found that the use of GIS-technologies allows to carry out accurate spatial reference of the obtained indicators to a particular territory, the use of GPS-navigators contributes to the qualitative tracking of the dynamics of changes in agrochemical indicators in time and space, and the use of automatic samplers during the field stage accelerates the process of soil sampling.
Keywords: плодородие почв, обследование, ГИС-технологии, GPS-навигаторы, автоматические пробоотборники, картограммы, базы данных.
Ecological research of physical-chemical soil parameters influence on growth seeded lawns when using perlite and mineral fertilizers
DOI 10.24412/1029-2551-2025-2-015
The results of studies on the effect of physico-chemical soil parameters on the growth of seeded lawns when using granular nitrogen fertilizer and the structure-forming material perlite are presented. Perlite has shown its specific effectiveness depending on the type of mineral additives used. In the variants where only granular fertilizer ТУД 12 (А) was used and in the control T13 (A), lawns grew more actively with an increase in the acidity of the medium from neutral (pHKCl 6.0) to slightly acidic (pHKCl 6.5). Lawn growth in the control and in the variants where only granular fertilizer ТУД 12 (А) and perlite ТП 14 (А) were used increased especially markedly in height with a gradual decrease in soil temperature from 35-32 to 25°C and an increase in soil moisture to 79.67%. When the temperature started to drop and humidity started to increase, lawn growth increased in all variants.
Keywords: seeded lawn, urban soils, perlite, granular mineral fertilizer, soil temperature, soil moisture, soil acidity.
Influence of oil pollution of soil on vital activities of some plants
DOI 10.24412/1029-2551-2025-2-016
Study of vital activity indicators of plants growing in some areas with oil pollution is presented. Soils from the Nizhnevartovsk deposits (the Tyumen region) were used for the experiment. The aim of the experiment was to study the effect of oil products on various biochemical parameters of plants, such as: phenols, flavonoids, chlorophyll concentration, Schiff bases and the content of diene conjugates. The work shows that the studied plants showed changes in biochemical parameters at various concentrations of oil products in the environment; including an increase in primary and secondary products of lipid peroxidation. Obtaining data on the impact of oil pollution on the biochemical parameters of oats is relevant, as it allows us to assess the damage caused to agricultural crops at the cellular level, and understanding the mechanisms of the impact of oil on plant cells can lead to an objective assessment of the degree of damage and the development of effective methods for protecting crops.
Keywords: oil pollution, biochemical parameters, vital signs.
Efficiency of new types of enriched fertilizers and their impact on agrochemical properties of soil
DOI 10.24412/1029-2551-2025-2-017
The article presents the results of studying the effect of new types of enriched fertilizers, including sulfur on the yield of peas of the Radomir variety and agrochemical properties of the soil. Field experiments were carried out on leached chernozem of the Krasnoyarsk forest-steppe in 2023-2024. The supply of nitrogen to the vegetative organs of peas is optimal in the variant with the introduction of ammonium sulfate enriched with nitrogen and sulfur. The maximum efficiency and statistically significant increase in pea yield were established in the first year of research when using ammonium sulfate enriched with nitrogen and sulfur, as well as ammonium sulfate with potassium humate. The highest dry matter content is noted in these same variants. An increase in the content of mobile sulfur in the soil was revealed in the variants where enriched fertilizers were used. It was found that the new types of fertilizers under study are environmentally friendly for both the soil and the crop.
Keywords: peas, leached chernozem, enriched fertilizers, mobile sulfur, mineral forms of nitrogen, yield, dry matter.
Pt- and Pd-containing chitosan-gelatin films: physicochemical properties, biological activity and biodegradation ability
DOI 10.24412/1029-2551-2025-2-018
Chitosan-gelatin films containing Pt(II) and Pd(II) cations were prepared by solution casting. The interaction of metal cations with the polymer matrix occurs through the oxygen and nitrogen atoms of the polymer functional groups. Polymeric platinum- and palladium-containing films catalyze the production of water-soluble antioxidants in plant cells and reduce the content of superoxide radical, which is the most dangerous active form of oxygen in living organisms. Platinum(II)- and palladium(II)-containing materials have a positive effect on the growth of lactic acid fungi. The obtained films are biodegradable in soil. These materials can be promisingly used as medicinal products for coating.
Keywords: chitosan, palladium, platinum, polymer films, antioxidants, biodegradation.
Assessment of the possibility of using coffee cake as a substrate for growing crops
DOI 10.24412/1029-2551-2025-2-019
In laboratory and vegetation experiments, the possibility of using coffee cake as a pure substrate and as a mixture with mineral soil for growing spring wheat of the Daria variety and ryegrass of the Leningradsky 809 pasture variety was studied. According to the results of two experiments conducted according to the same scheme, it was revealed that the use of coffee cake in its pure form as a substrate was ineffective and suppressed the growth and development of wheat and ryegrass plants, even despite the high content of organic matter and mobile potassium in the chemical composition of the cake. In the course of phenological observations, it was noted that plants experienced toxic effects in variants with the use of cake. This was especially pronounced during the cultivation of two ryegrass mows. When mixing coffee cake and mineral soil in a ratio of 1:1 (by weight) the green mass and height of the plants increased by 2 times. However, in the dry mass of plants, the differences between the variants using coffee cake turned out to be insignificant. Moreover, in the vegetation experiment with ryegrass in the second mowing, the green and dry masses were equal in the variants with coffee cake. The study of the dynamics of biometric indicators has only confirmed the harvest data. The peat grunt used as a control variant showed the greatest effectiveness in the experiment. Spring wheat and pasture ryegrass grown in this variant were biometrically superior to plants in variants using coffee cake, and their mass was many times higher.
Keywords: coffee, cake, organic fertilizer, peat grunt, substrate, spring wheat, ryegrass pasture, waste.